Educational
technology
Educational technology is
the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes
and resources." The term educational technology is often
associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design,
development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources
for learning," according to the Association for Educational Communications
and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee, educational
technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human
capability. Educational Technology includes, but is not limited to, software,
hardware, as well as Internet applications and activities. But there is still
debate on what these terms mean.
Explanation and meaning
Educational
technology is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that
might prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how
and why individuals behave. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition
of the word "TECHNOLOGY".
Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines
or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems,
methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not
limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools
such as "smartphones" and games (both online and offline) are beginning
to draw serious attention for their learning potential. Media psychology is the
field of study that applies theories in human behavior to educational
technology. Those who employ educational technologies to explore ideas and
communicate meaning are learners or teachers. Consider the Handbook of Human Performance
Technology.[4] The word
technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human Performance
Technology means "applied science." In other words, any valid and
reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the
"scientific method" is considered a "technology."
Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic
or heuristic processes, but neither necessarily implies physical technology.
The word technology comes from the Greek "techne" which means craft or art. Another
word, "technique," with the same origin, also may be used when
considering the field Educational Technology. So Educational Technology may be
extended to include the techniques of the educator.
A classic example of an Educational Psychology
text is Bloom's 1956 book, Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives. Bloom's Taxonomy is helpful when
designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected of—and what are
the learning goals for—learners. However, Bloom's work does not explicitly deal
with educational technology per
se and is more concerned with
pedagogical strategies.
According to
some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational
and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a
technology) of learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically
have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field
related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology,
cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational,
Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional (Systems)
Design. But few of those listed below as theorists would ever use the term
"educational technologist" as a term to describe themselves,
preferring terms such as "educator". The transformation of educational
technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville,
Browne, and Whitaker.
A Short History
Educational
technology in a way could be traced back to the emergence of very early tools,
e.g., paintings on cave walls. But usually its history starts with educational
film (1900s) or Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines in the 1920s.
The first large
scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers
through training films and other mediated materials. Today, presentation-based
technology, based on the idea that people can learn through aural and visual
reception, exists in many forms, e.g., streaming audio and video, or PowerPoint
presentations with voice-over. Another interesting invention of the 1940s was
hypertext, i.e., V. Bush's memex.
The 1950s led to
two major, still popular designs. Skinners work led to "programmed
instruction" focusing on the formulation of behavioral objectives,
breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses
early and often. Advocating a mastery approach to learning based on his
taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that
varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models
based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based
training" (CBT), Computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted
instruction (CAI) in the 1970s through the 1990s. In a more simplified form
they correspond to today's "e-contents" that often form the core of
"e-learning" set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based
training (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer divides learning contents
into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics and multimedia
presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice questions with immediate feedback are
added for self-assessment and guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards
defined by IMS, ADL/Scorm and IEEE.
The 1980s and
1990s produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of the
label Computer-based learning (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and
cognitivist learning theories, these environments focused on teaching both
abstract and domain-specific problem solving. Preferred technologies were
micro-worlds (computer environments where learners could explore and build),
simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of
dynamic systems) and hypertext.
Digitized
communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became
popular by the mid-90's, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail
and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning.
The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or
Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between the student
and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds and simulations
on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing
paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-mediated communication (CMC),
where the primary form of interaction is between students and instructors,
mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study)
learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires
scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides
education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated
knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum
management.
In addition to
classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in
full-time distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on paper,
videos and occasional CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring
through forums, instant messaging, video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to
smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid designs that mix presence
courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with distance
activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g., drill & practise,
exercises, projects, etc.).
The 2000s
emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse to
situated learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature
uses the concept of integrated learning to describe blended learning scenarios
that integrate both school and authentic (e.g., workplace) settings.
Theories
and practices
Three main
theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the
educational technology literature. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Each of these schools of thought are
still present in today's literature but have evolved as the Psychology literature has
evolved.
Behaviorism
This theoretical
framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning
experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike,Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many others.
Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment with human
learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor
with many educators.
Skinner's
Contributions
B.F. Skinner wrote
extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of Verbal Behavior and wrote
"The Technology of Teaching", an
attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as
promote his system he called programmed
instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed
the Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite
different from Keller's and Skinner's models.
Cognitivism
Cognitive science has changed how
educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive
Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal
of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even
though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to
explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to
promote learning. After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were
established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive
frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. It
is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had
a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of
working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long term memory have
been facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer Science.
Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today
researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information
Processing Theory. In
addition, psychology as applied to media is easily measured in studying
behavior. The area of media psychology is both cognitive and affective and is
central to understanding educational technology.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning
theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the
1990s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct
their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others
with different perspectives. Constructivist learning environments require
students to utilize their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new,
related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of
the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners
can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that
the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts
being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning
environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured"
environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing
technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose
technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving
environment.
Instructional
technique and technologies
Problem Based
Learning and Inquiry-based
learning are active learning educational
technologies used to facilitate learning. Technology which includes
physical and process applied science can be incorporated into project, problem,
inquiry-based learning as they all have a similar educational philosophy. All
three are student centered, ideally involving real-world scenarios in which
students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. The process that
students are encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical
research) is considered to be a technology. Classic examples of technologies
used by teachers and Educational Technologists include Bloom's Taxonomy and Instructional
Design.
Theorists
This is an area
where new thinkers are coming to the forefront everyday. Many of the ideas
spread from theorists, researchers, and experts through their blogs. Extensive
lists of educational bloggers by area of interest are available at Steve
Hargadon's "SupportBloggers" site or at the "movingforward"
wiki started by Scott McLeod. Many
of these blogs are recognized by their peers each year through the edublogger
awards. Web 2.0 technologies
have led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on this
topic and the number of educators formally and informally discussing it. Most
listed below have been around for more than a decade, however, and few new
thinkers mentioned above are listed here.
§ Don Krug
|
Benefits
Educational technology is
intended to improve education over what it would be without technology. Some of
the claimed benefits are listed below:
§ Easy-to-access
course materials.
Instructors can post the course material or important information on a course
website, which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and
can obtain the study material very quickly.
§ Student
motivation.
Computer-based instruction can give instant feedback to students and explain
correct answers. Moreover, a computer is patient and non-judgmental, which can
give the student motivation to continue learning. According to James Kulik, who
studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually
learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like
classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in
computer-based classes. The
American educator, Cassandra B. Whyte, researched and
reported about the importance of locus of control and successful
academic performance and by the late 1980s, she wrote of how important computer
usage and information technology would become in the higher education
experience of the future.
§ Wide
participation.
Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible to
a wider audience.
§ Improved student
writing.
It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors,
which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some
studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is
exchanged over a computer network with students they know
§ Subjects made
easier to learn.
Many different types of educational software are designed and developed to help
children or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples include pre-school
software, computer simulators, and graphics software
§ A structure that
is more amenable to measurement and improvement of outcomes. With proper
structuring it can become easier to monitor and maintain student work while
also quickly gauging modifications to the instruction necessary to enhance
student learning.
§ Differentiated
Instruction. Educational
technology provides the means to focus on active student participation and to
present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens individualized
instruction and promotes the development of personalized learning plans.
Students are encouraged to use multimedia components and to incorporate the
knowledge they gained in creative ways.
Criticism
Although technology in the
classroom does have many benefits, there are clear drawbacks as well. Lack of
proper training, limited access to sufficient quantities of a technology, and
the extra time required for many implementations of technology are just a few
of the reasons that technology is often not used extensively in the classroom.
To understand educational technology one must also understand theories in human
behavior as behavior is affected by technology. Media Psychology is the study
of media, technology and how and why individuals, groups and societies behave
the way they do. The first Ph.D program with a concentration in media
psychology was started in 2002 at Fielding Graduate University by Bernard
Luskin. The Media Psychology division of APA, division 46 has a focus on media
psychology. Media and the family is another emerging area affected by rapidly
changing educational technology.
Similar to learning a new task or
trade, special training is vital to ensuring the effective integration of
classroom technology. Since technology is not the end goal of education, but
rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good
grasp of the technology being used and its advantages over more traditional
methods. If there is a lack in either of these areas, technology will be seen
as a hindrance and not a benefit to the goals of teaching.
Another difficulty is introduced
when access to a sufficient quantity of a resource is limited. This is often
seen when the quantity of computers or digital cameras for classroom use is not
enough to meet the needs of an entire classroom. It also occurs in less noticed
forms such as limited access for technology exploration because of the high
cost of technology and the fear of damages. In other cases, the inconvenience
of resource placement is a hindrance, such as having to transport a classroom
to a computer lab instead of having in-classroom computer access by means of
technology such as laptop carts.
Technology implementation can
also be time consuming. There may be an initial setup or training time cost
inherent in the use of certain technologies. Even with these tasks
accomplished, technology failure may occur during the activity and as a result
teachers must have an alternative lesson ready. Another major issue arises
because of the evolving nature of technology. New resources have to be designed
and distributed whenever the technological platform has been changed. Finding quality
materials to support classroom objectives after such changes is often difficult
even after they exist in sufficient quantity and teachers must design these
resources on their own.
Experimental evidence suggests
that these criticisms may have limited basis. See, for example, the work done
by Sugata Mitra. A recent
presentation summarizes the research and Dr. Mitra's current research
initiative.
Educational technology and the
humanities
Research from the Alberta
Initiative for School Improvement (AISI) indicates
that inquiry and project based approaches, combined with a focus
on curriculum, effectively supports the infusion of educational technologies
into the learning and teaching process.
Technology in the classroom
There are various types of
technologies currently used in traditional classrooms. Among these are:
- Computer in
the classroom: Having a
computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in
the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new
material, illustrate how to use new programs, and show new websites.
- Class
website: An easy way
to display your student's work is to create a web page designed for your
class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework
assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more.
In today's society, children know how to use the computer and navigate
their way through a website, so why not give them one where they can be a
published author. Just be careful as most districts maintain strong
policies to manage official websites for a school or classroom. Also, most
school districts provide teacher web pages that can easily be viewed
through the school district's website.
- Class blogs
and wikis: There are a
variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in the
classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue, such
as a journal, thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for
student comment and reflection. Wikis are more group focused to allow
multiple members of the group to edit a single document and create a truly
collaborative and carefully edited finished product.
- Wireless
classroom microphones: Noisy
classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones,
students are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children learn
better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is
that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day.
- Mobile
devices: Mobile
devices such as clickers or smart phone can be used to enhance the
experience in the classroom by providing the possibility for professors to
get feedback.
- Interactive
Whiteboards: An
interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of computer
applications. These enhance the experience in the classroom by showing
anything that can be on a computer screen. This not only aids in visual
learning, but it is interactive so the students can draw, write, or
manipulate images on the interactive whiteboard.
- Online
media: Streamed
video websites can be utilized to enhance a classroom lesson (e.g. United
Streaming, Teacher Tube, etc.)
- Digital
Games: The field
of educational games and serious games has been growing significantly over
the last few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the
classroom and have a lot of positive feedback including higher motivation
for students.
9.
There are many other tools being utilized depending on
the local school board and funds available. These may include: digital cameras,
video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, or LCD
projectors.
- Podcasts: Podcasting is a relatively
new invention that allows anybody to publish files to the Internet where
individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by a
subscription. The primary benefit of podcasting for educators is quite
simple. It enables teachers to reach students through a medium that is
both "cool" and a part of their daily lives. For a technology
that only requires a computer, microphone and internet connection,
podcasting has the capacity of advancing a student’s education beyond the
classroom. When students listen to the podcasts of other students as well
as their own, they can quickly demonstrate their capacities to identify
and define "quality." This can be a great tool for learning and
developing literacy inside and outside the classroom. Podcasting can help
sharpen students’ vocabulary, writing, editing, public speaking, and
presentation skills. Students will also learn skills that will be valuable
in the working world, such as communication, time management, and
problem-solving.
Walang komento:
Mag-post ng isang Komento